Special Education Strategy Notebook Essay Example for Free

Special Education Strategy Notebook Essay Self monitoring is a strategy that is often used in classrooms with children who have trouble staying on task and focusing. It is a method that involves a student taking responsibility of themselves academically and behaviorally and recording when they find themselves not on task. In essence, a sheet of paper is given to a child and a noise is made at certain intervals during the class day. This noise could be something that only the specific child hears (such as in an ear piece) or it could be something that is heard by the entire class. Either way, the student who is participating in self monitoring simply puts a tally mark in a column for â€Å"on task† or â€Å"off task† on their sheet of paper every time the noise sounds off and at the end of the day both student and teacher can see how many times the student found him or herself off task. This helps put into perspective for the student how much he or she pays attention in a regular day and typically causes them to try harder to remain on task even more the following day. It is important that a teacher lets the student know exactly what is meant by â€Å"on task† and â€Å"off task† so that the student understands 100% what is expected of him or her, and it is also important that the sound itself not be distracting from the lesson. Eventually, a student can be weaned off the external cues of the sound, and will begin self monitoring without it, which is ideal. B. How do we know that self monitoring works? Put simply, we know that self monitoring works because it has been studied over and over by numerous researchers and has been proven effective at least the majority of those times. These studies confirm that this strategy helps manage students who are off task in the classroom due to various disruptive, learning related and social behaviors. Children of many ages were tested, ranging from ages as young as 4 to kids who are in high school, and the findings were consistent. In nearly all of the tests described in the article I researched, self-monitoring was said to have â€Å"decreased off task behaviors dramatically† or â€Å"decreased inappropriate behaviors† or â€Å"decrease talking out behavior,† etc (Hallahan, D. P. Husdon, K. ). C. When should a teacher use self monitoring? As a strategy in a school setting, self monitoring typically works best for students who have problems primarily in attention. This is not a strategy that actually helps a student learn anything in particular, so the skills for learning material has to be already within a students capability but who cannot focus or remain on task long enough to apply these said skills. In laments terms, self monitoring works best when used for applying skills not when being introduced to new ones. Self monitoring can be used successfully for students with attentional tasks in really any classroom setting. It works great for â€Å"seat work†, when a child is assigned independent work that they must take sole responsibility for finishing but can also work in a group. Group work often has other students who keep the self monitor on task, but if this were not the case self monitoring would still be helpful. D. What does a teacher need to do to implement self monitoring? It is important that a teacher use each part of the procedure of self monitoring, including tones, recording sheets and training. Before implementing all of these procedures, a student needs to be introduced to the idea. It is imperative that a student have a good explanation of why they are required to keep record of their behavior when other students are not. A child needs to be given explicit instructions as to what he or she needs to do; this includes a description of what on task and off task are in the teacher’s terms, what the tone or sound will be, and how often the sound will go off, etc. Once the directions have been given to the child it is also important to go over the recording sheet with him or her and give examples of what will happen during class when he or she is to be recording their behavior. Once a child seemingly understands what is expected, feedback becomes very important. If he or she gets off task, the teacher needs to correct the behavior and then move on. At the same time, if a student has very good behavior it is also important to praise that. After the student gets used to this procedure, a teacher can begin to wean him or her off having to hear the tone to monitor their behavior. This is the ideal situation because then a student simply checks himself without a reminder and will continue to do so. E. How does a teacher know if self monitoring is working? Evaluating whether this strategy is working for a particular student is very important because if it is not, then there could actually be harm coming from trying to use it. Evaluating also leaves room for modifications that could help different students at different times. The basic way to see if self monitoring is working is to simply gather data on the student’s attention to a task before using the strategy and then compare that data with what you find after the student has begun to self monitor. To collect data before introducing self monitoring, a teacher can simply do the monitoring herself; use a tone and record the attentiveness of that child at each sound. A good practice to collect the original data would be to compare the target student and a student with average attentiveness. If the comparison shows that the level of attention seems to have improved after the strategy is implemented, it has probably worked and vice versa. F. Where can a teacher find more information on self monitoring? There are numerous ways to find out more information on self monitoring from articles, websites, books, etc. Here is a list of multiple sources where more information can be found (Hallahan, D. P. Hudson, K. ) Blick, D. W. , Test, D. W. (1987). Effects of self-recording on high-school students’ on-task behavior. Hallahan, D. P. , Lloyd, J. W. , Stoller, L. (1982). Improving attention with self-monitoring: A manual for teachers. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Learning Disabilities Research Institute. Hallahan, D. P. , Marshall, K. J. , Lloyd, J. W. (1981). Self-recording during group instruction: Effects on attention to task. Learning Disability Quarterly, 4, 407-413. G. Self Monitoring Bibliography. Hallahan, D. P. , Hudson, K. G. (2002). Teaching tutorial 2: Self monitoring of attention. Retrieved from www. teachingLD. org Shimabukuro, S. M. , Prater, M. A. , Jenkins, A. , Edelen-Smith, P. (1999). The effects of self-monitoring of academic performance on students with learning disabilities and ADD/ADHD. Education and Treatment of Children, 22, 397- 414. Webber, J. , Scheuermann, B. , McCall, C. , Coleman, M. (1993). Research on self-monitoring as a behavior management technique in special education classrooms: A descriptive review. Remedial and Special Education, 14, 38-56. Workman, E. A., Helton, G. B. , Watson, P. J. (1982). Self-monitoring effects in a four-year-old child:An ecological behavior analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 20, 57-64. II. Time Delay A. What is time delay? Time delay is a strategy that focuses on weaning the use of prompts during teaching and educational practices and is most often used with students who have Autism Spectrum disorders. When instructing someone who has a particular learning disability, sometimes he or she needs additional prompting right after the material has been presented; this could include least-to-most prompting, simultaneous prompting, etc. There are two types of time delay; progressive and constant. Progressive time delay takes the immediate additional help given to particular students and lessens it each time material is taught. The time in between the original presentation and the additional help is lengthened as a child gets more comfortable learning and proficient. Constant time delay occurs when a teacher gives no time between the original instruction and the added prompt, then continually lengthens that amount of time when proficiency strengthens (Neitzel, J). B. How do we know that Time Delay is effective? In order to be used in schools for students with Autism Spectrum disorders, time delay had to be researched numerous times and found to be an evidence based practice. The National Professional Development Center on ASD has defined what they mean by â€Å"evidence based practice† to mean that it includes â€Å"randomized design studies, single-subject design studies, and combination of evidence. † Randomized design studies must include two experimental group design studies and they must be conducted by highly qualified researchers. Three separate investigators must have also conducted five high quality single-subject design studies. Once this is all done, the evidence from both must be combined to see allow researchers to see if time delay works in real life settings with ASD (Time Delay). C. When should a teacher use time delay? Time delay is a great strategy for a teacher to use when a student in her class has an Autism Spectrum disorder. It has been found that it is most effective when used with children and youth rather than older students, regardless of cognitive level and expressive abilities. According to the evidence listed above, time delay is very effective during the specific ages of 6-11. Teachers can instruct these specific students effectively on a variety of material using time delay such as academics, play/leisure, language/communication, and also social skills. It is important that all of this teaching be done in clinical environments, though, because that was where the studies were done and showed improvement (Neitzel, J) . D. What does a teacher need to do to implement Time Delay? There are multiple steps that a teacher must work his or way through in order to implement the time delay strategy. Both progressive and constant time delay procedures involve the same three steps of implementation; a cue and target stimulus, learner response, and feedback or consequence. Without all three of these components, time delay cannot be an effective strategy to use in the classroom while teaching students with Autism Spectrum disorders. The target stimulus, also called the antecedent, is what a teacher wants the student to respond by doing when posed with the cue. The cue is a signal that helps the student figure out what behaviors he or she should be exhibiting. When trying out the time delay strategy, it is important to keep the cues consistent so that the student knows what is expected of him or her during every activity. Learner response, the second necessary component of time delay, is the behavior that teachers want the student to pick up on. The feedback is the reinforcement of a behavior. Positive feedback when a student does something correctly is essential for that behavior to become consistent. On the opposite end, negative feedback when something is done incorrectly is just as important so a student knows to try to behave a different way. This â€Å"negative feedback† is known as a correction procedure and involves a constant repetition of the cue and prompts necessary for the student to exhibit the correct behavior (Neitzel, J Worley, M). Knowing the broad steps for implementing time delay, a teacher must also know the specifics. There are multiple steps that one must go through in order to effectively use the strategy. Step one is identifying the skill or behavior and define them in an observable measure and identify it as wither a discrete task or a chained task. A teacher must also then define learner response behaviors so that they can easily be identified as either correct or incorrect. Next, a teacher needs to determine a students current skills. After this is determined and recorded, an educator must select the target stimulus and cue and clearly explain this to the child, and then do the same with the controlling prompt. Next, reinforces must be identified and the response interval should be decided upon (Neitzel, J. Worley, M). E. How does a teacher know if Time Delay is working? Just as with any teaching strategy, the way to tell if Time Delay is working is to compare student ability before and after the delay is implemented. Before a student is introduced to this strategy a teacher can instruct a student on anything in particular and record the amount of correct and incorrect responses. After this data is recorded, it would be important to introduce time delay and instruct the child on the correct responses, stimuli, etc. Once that is all introduced, the teacher could teach material and again keep track of correct and incorrect responses. If the amount of incorrect responses decreases and the amount of correct responses increases, there is a very good chance this change is due to the implementation of time delay. F. Where can a teacher find more information on Time Delay? Odom, S. L. , Brantlinger, E. , Gersten, R. , Horner, R. D. , Thompson, B. , Harris, K. (2004). Quality indicators for research in special education and guidelines for evidence-based practices: Executive summary. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children Division for Research. Rogers, S. J. , Vismara, L. A. (2008). Evidence based comprehensive treatments for early autism. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37(1), 8-38. Ledford, J. R. , Gast, D. L. , Luscre, D. , Ayres, K. M. (2008). Observational and incidental learning by children with autism during small group instruction. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 86-103. Liber, D. B. , Frea, W. D. , Symon, J. B. G. (2008). Using time delay to improve social play skills with peers for children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 312-323. G. Time Delay Bibliography. Neitzel, J. (2009). Overview of time delay. Chapel Hill, NC: National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina. Neitzel, J. , Wolery, M. (2009). Steps for implementation: Time delay. Chapel Hill, NC: The National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, The University of North Carolina. Time delay. (2010). National Professional Development Center on ASD, Retrieved from http://autismpdc.fpg. unc. edu/sites/autismpdc. fpg. unc. edu/files/TimeDelay_Steps_0. pdf Mnemonics A. What is Mnemonics? Mnemonics are devices used to help people remember and recall things that are somewhat hard to remember on their own. Put simply, the job of a mnemonic is to make the difficult task of memorization a little bit simpler. Using mnemonics helps to combine a presentation a person is comfortable with information that needs to be remembered; the association between the presentation and the information makes recall easier (Bringham, R Bringham, M). There is a link between new information and prior knowledge in the presentation of a mnemonic, and often they employ both visual and acoustic cues. There are many different types of mnemonics. The keyword method works very well with new information, and is directly tied to something that a student already knows. For example, if there is a vocabulary word that a student is trying to learn that sounds like a word they are already familiar with, they can associate the two words together to remember the one they do not know. This association can be made with a picture, or just by memory. Another mnemonic method is the peg-word method. Peg words are similar to keywords but they are known for their rhyming proxies for numbers to help students remember numbered or ordered information. A third mnemonic is known as letter strategies, including acronyms and acrostics. An acronym is a words whose individual letters can represent elements in lists of information. Acrostics are sentences whose first letters represent the information that needs to be remembered (Scruggs Mastropieri, 2002). There are also mnemonics for remembered how to spell, such as pictures with specific letters decorated. B. How do we know that Mnemonics are effective? There have been numerous evidence based research studies done to prove the effectiveness of mnemonics. These studies have shown that students taught material mnemonically have had a significant amount of more success than those students who were not taught in tis way. A specific study was done by Forness, Kavale, Blum and Lloyd in 1997 that concluded that for special education students, instruction using mnemonics showed the most positive results (Forness, S. R. , Kavale, K. A. , Blum, I. M. , Lloyd, J. W. 1997). Building off of these findings, other studies on special education have been compiled and summarized to show that the average child with a learning disability scored 43% correct, while the average mnemonically taught student scored 75% correct (Mastropieri Scruggs, 1989). Also, classroom teacher applications of mnemonic techniques have suggested that these strategies are very effective in inclusive classrooms, in some cases raising the performance of students with learning disabilities to that of the normally achieving students (Mastropieri, Sweda, Scruggs; 2000; Uberti, Scruggs, Mastropieri, in press). C. When should Mnemonics be used? The fantastic thing about mnemonics is that they can virtually be used whenever, with any student in any subject. This strategy has been experimentally validated in english vocabulary, foreign language vocabulary, earth science, physical science, U. S. history, world history, letter recognition, math facts, and spelling. Moreover, it has been experimentally validated that mnemonics not only works in all of these subject areas for average students buy for students with learning disabilities as well. Mnemonics are also appropriate to use with students of any age, ranging from Kindergarten to college. Younger students typically do not have to recall the same amount of facts that are required of those older than them, but they are still useful in learning things such as the alphabet (Levin, 1993). Thus, this strategy is a great one for teachers to use frequently whenever large amounts of information are presented that must be remembered or recalled (Bringham, R. Bringham M. 2001). D. What does a teacher need to do to implement Mnemonics? Mnemonics should be used by all teachers when introducing information that must be remembered and there are certain ways to go about doing so. At first, the teacher should be the leader of mnemonics and should directly guide the students into coming up with specific ways to remember information. When a teacher is directly involved with every step of creating a mnemonic it is called maximum support. As students become more proficient in using mnemonics, though, it is important for the teacher to take a few steps back and let them go on their own. Once a certain level of proficiency is met, a teacher moves on to intermediate supports. Now, a teacher is still there if needed but most of the responsibility is turned over to the students and their peers to create and use mnemonics. After this step, a teacher can allow students to work on mnemonics independently. Following these steps help to not overwhelm students, and to help them to learn how to use the strategy on their own so that when they move to a different class or school they can take their knowledge of mnemonics with them and continue to use them. E. How does a teacher know if Mnemonics are working? The purpose of mnemonics is memorization so the best way to test if the strategy is working is to frequently question and test students on the information that they are supposed to be learning using the mnemonics. Some students might already know the information or might have guessed, so it is also important to ask them how they remembered the answer they gave. This way, a teacher can easily see if it is the mnemonic helping them recall the information or if it is something else entirely. Students, too, can alert a teacher as to whether or not the strategy is working by simply saying mnemonics are helpful to them specifically or not. F. Where can a teacher find more information about Mnemonics? Mastropieri, M. A. , Scruggs, T. E. (2000). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective instruction. Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall/Merrill. (Chapter 8, Attention and Memory) Mastropieri, M. A. , Scruggs, T. E. (1991). Teaching students ways to remember: Strategies for learning mnemonically. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Brigham, F. J. , Scruggs, T. E. , Mastropieri, M. A. (1995). Elaborative maps for enhanced learning of historical information: Uniting spatial, verbal, and imaginal information. Journal of Special Education, 28, 440-460. Bulgren, J. A. , Schumaker, J. B. , Deshler, D. D. (1994). The effects of a recall enhancement routine on the test performance of secondary students with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research Practice, 9, 2-11. G. Mnemonics Bibliography Bringham, R. , Bringham, M. (n. d. ). A focus on mnemonic instruction. (2001). Current Practice Alerts, (5), Retrieved from www. dldcec. org/alerts/ Scruggs, T. , Mastropieri, M. (n. d. ). Teaching tutorial: Mnemonic instruction. (2002). Division for Learning Disabilities , 1-26. Retrieved from www. teachingLD. org Mastropieri, M. A. , Scruggs, T. E. (1989a). Constructing more meaningful relationships: Mnemonic instruction for special populations. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 83-111. Forness, S. R. , Kavale, K. A. , Blum, I. M. , Lloyd, J. W. (1997). Mega-analysis of meta-analysis: What works in special education and related services. Teaching Exceptional Children, 29(6), 4-9. Mastropieri, M. A. , Sweda, J. , Scruggs, T. E. (2000). Teacher use of mnemonic strategy instruction. Learning Disabilities Research Practice, 15, 69-74. Levin, J. R. (1993). Mnemonic strategies and classroom learning: A twenty-year report card. The Elementary School Journal, 94(2), 235-244. Task Analysis A. What is task analysis? Task analysis is a learning strategy that involved breaking a learnable skill into smaller steps that are more manageable for students who need it (Franzone 2009). This strategy is something that is used by every single person at least once in their life, even if done so unconsciously. It is the only way to ever really learn complete processes, for example you have to walk before you can run. By breaking skills into smaller chunks, we all eventually learn specific tasks as if they are second nature and learn to not have to follow the original steps posed. It is necessary, though, to express the different parts that make up the whole (the skill being learned) until absolute mastery has been achieved (Grove 2012). B. How do we know that task analysis is effective? There are certain criterion that strategies have to meet before they can be used in schools, including in the special ed classroom. Task analysis meets these requirements and has been tested and proven in numerous evidence based practices. To be considered evidence based practice for people with Autism Spectrum disorder, efficacy must be established through peer-reviewed research in scientific journals using randomized or quasi-experimental design studies, single-subject design studies, and then a combination of evidence. High quality randomized design studies are categorized by the absence of critical design flaws that create confounds and the demonstration of experimental control at least three times in each study (Horner, Nathan, Odom, Rogers) . When should a teacher use task analysis? Task analysis is a strategy that can be used very effectively with children who have an autism spectrum disorder, no matter their cognitive level and expressive communicative skills. Children from preschool age to high school age have shown through studies that task analysis works and is an effective practice for older learners as well. It is also a good practice to use when teaching educators how to interact and teach their students with autism spectrum disorders. Task analysis has been proven to help all of these students in multiple areas. There are ways to use task analysis to teach in a school setting, in a classroom (inclusive or not). Also, there is evidence that it works in home and community settings. For instance, teaching a child with a significant disability how to complete regular everyday tasks such as brushing teeth, brushing hair, showering, etc becomes more easily possible if you employ task analysis (Franzone 2009). D. What does a teacher need to do to implement Task Analysis? In order to implement a task analysis in a particular classroom, a teacher must follow a set of steps. Step one is to identify the target skill. This step involves targeting a specific skill that is to be learned by the student with Autism Spectrum disorder. To do this, an educator must use the learner’s Individual Education Plan/Individual Family Service Plan goals. The skill should consist a series of discrete steps, so as to make learning it a bit easier. For example, washing dishes is an acceptable skill to target. Turning on a sink or preparing, serving and cleaning up dinner would be either too simple or too hard. Step two involves identifying the prerequisite skills of the learner and the materials needed to teach the task. Step three is breaking the skill into components. This is the step where true task analysis really begins; where the skills are actually broken up into steps. Next, a teacher needs to confirm that the task is completely analyzed in order to sure no step is left out because it would compromise the entire activity. Step five involves determining how the teacher will actually teach the skill. Last, intervention must be implemented and progress must be monitored so that changes can be made if need be. E. How does a teacher know if Task Analysis is working? Before task analysis is implemented, it is important for teachers to closely monitor the student in question to see the skills they have the most trouble with. Keeping record of this will help to see if any bounds in learning have been made once the strategy has been put in place. Observation is key, before and after implementation, and if it is done carefully and cautiously enough a teacher can directly see the impact of the strategy after a student has learned the skill he or she was asked to learn. F. Where can a teacher find more information on task analysis? Alcantara, P. R. (1994). Effects of videotape instructional package on purchasing skills of children with autism. Exceptional Children, 61(1), 40-55. Browder, D. , Trela, K. , Jimenez, B. (2007). Training teachers to follow a task analysis to engage middle school students with moderate and severe developmental disabilities in grade appropriate literacy. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22(4), 206-219. Hagopian, L. , Farrell, D. , Amari, A. (1996). Treating total liquid refusal with backward chaining and fading. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29(4), 573-575. Liber, D. , Frea, W. , Symon, J. (2008). Using time-delay to improve social play skills with peers for children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 312-323. Luscre, D. , Center, D. (1996). Procedures for reducing dental fear in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26(5), 547-556. G. Task Analysis Bibliography Franzone, E. (2009). Overview of task analysis. Madison, WI: National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin. Grove, A. (2013, August 08). Bright hub: Task analysis in special education. Retrieved from http://www. brighthubeducation. com/special-ed-learning-disorders/25800-how-task-analysis- Horner, R. , Carr, E. , Halle, J. , McGee, G. , Odom, S. , Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional Children, 71, 165-180. Nathan, P. , Gorman, J. M. (2002). A guide to treatments that work. NY: Oxford University Press. Odom, S. L. , Brantlinger, E. , Gersten, R. , Horner, R. D. , Thompson, B. , Harris, K. (2004). Quality indicators for research in special education and guidelines for evidence-based practices: Executive summary. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children Division for Research. Rogers, S. J. , Vismara, L. A. (2008). Evidence based comprehensive treatments for early autism. Journal of Clinical Child Adolescent Psychology, 37(1), 8-38. Szidon, K. , Franzone, E. (2009). Task Analysis. Madison, WI: National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin. Functional Behavior Analysis What is functional behavior analysis? A functional behavior analysis is a variety of methods to identify and define behaviors that need to be changed. It is the process of gathering and analyzing information about a specific student’s behavior and accompanying circumstances in order to determine reasons behind certain behaviors. These strategies help teachers identify interventions that will help to reduce these behaviors and help develop appropriate ones to fill the place of the ones being reduced. Functional behavior analysis relies on a number of techniques and strategies to identify the reasons behind each behavior and to help IEP teams select the interventions that are to be used. It should be integrated throughout the process of developing, reviewing, and revising a student’s Individualized Education Plan (McIntyre, 2001). How do we know that Functional Behavior Analysis is effective? Functional behavior analysis has been researched multiple times by different qualified researchers and has been found to show promising results in student achievement the vast majority of the time. Studies have been conducted multiple times to rule out any researcher error and students have shown drastic differences from before the strategy was implemented to after it was done. It is also important to note that Functional Behavior Assessment has obviously been proven effected in that it has become a part of national legislature, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. As stated in the act, it is mandatory that a student with known behavior problems be supported with this strategy (Jordan, 2006). When should a teacher use Functional Behavior Analysis Often times Functional Behavior Analysis is implemented on students with severe cognitive or communication disabilities such as autism (McIntyre, 2001). Even though this is so, ff ever there is a time that teachers become concerned about particular student with a disability, it is required by law (IDEA) to implement the functional behavior assessment process so that they can determine why the child in question is acting in such a way. This strategy helps to identify why a particular behavior occurred, and in determining this, a teacher can then begin to create interventions that will help the student avert from that negative behavior and replace it with a good behavior. It is important that teachers intervene with positive behavioral actions before the problem behaviors occur if at all possible. What does a teacher need to do to implement Functional Behavior Analysis? IDEA does not ever specifically define how a functional behavior analysis should be implemented, and often it depends on the needs of every specific child. There are, though, very specific steps that must occur in order for the strategy to work. First, a teacher must identify the behaviors that need to be changed, or at least the most serious of multiple strategies. In identifying the behaviors it is imperative to determine when and where they occur and when and where they do not. This will allow a teacher to try to determine the triggers for that specific student. After the behavior(s) are identified, a teacher must collect data on the specific child’s performance in many different ways, and have as many sources possible. After all of this data is collected and recorded a hypothesis needs to be developed as to what could be the cause of these specific behaviors based on the data collected. This helps predict where the teacher needs to target the change that will be made. Next, as with any other experiment, the hypothesis must be tested. Using positive interventions, the child’s specific team makes changes as needed to there Individualized Education Plan or Behavior Intervention Plan. After all of this is done the interventions need to be evalua.

Nightmare on Elm Street Essay Example for Free

Nightmare on Elm Street Essay Nightmare on Elm Street 10 genre is horror he’s centralized looking down not facing the audience or giving eye contact gives a feeling of unease to the PTA as we dont know who the person or creature is so it causes ambiguity in the audiences eyes. Binary oppositions of dark and light so could connote good versus evil it goes darker towards the bottom title is written in red connotes blood the colours of red browns and blacks are typical of the horror genre connotes death, fear, scary he is also holding a sharp knife with the lighting showing the edge of the knife which is used to show it hasnt been used yet so who is the attackers new victim going to be? The title in red represents the colour of blood and inevitable death some of the letters on nightmare are fogged over meaning its conspicuous and something isnt right it creates an enigma in the primary target audiences eyes. Freddie Kruger is foregrounded in the image so he is more important than the layout of the text the clothes on the killer are worn which would connote he is old and aged the film typography is very similar to the film layout used in devils rejects its contextual with that film The poster ‘welcome to your new nightmare’ it’s directly talking to the audience and emphasizes the word new so the audience would infer what ‘new nightmare am I having nightmares already’? He is clasping his hands tightly showing that he is ready to kill. The connotations from this poster show deeper meaning. A part used in the mis-en-scene in this poster that shows this is the lighting, the poster is dominated by dim low lighting which gives a dim creepy like feel, also Freddie is bowing his head covering half his face with the his, gives an air of mystery, which may have the audience thinking, ‘what lengths will he go to’?. There is also a white light that is shining from behind him which represents hope and peace but in this setting could connote that death is near, as it’s said that people near death experience following the white light, with Kruger being in front of the light this could connote that he will be with them in death so that they will never have peace from him. The Iconic claw is also emphasized by a little lighting giving the effect that it is glistening, which suggests the claw is a sharp clean weapon that is waiting to be used this effect is used to help make the claw a main focus of the poster. Freddie is also clutching his hands which show that he is ready to attack but the mystery is he is only showing one claw, what else does he have as weapons? The main text used is a type of Serif Fonts this gives the poster and aged feel, although the rest of the poster is quite modern, this may suggest remake of the classic Nightmare on Elm Street. The poster is trying to sell something other than star qualities to get the viewers to watch this film and instead they are enticing peoples natural curiosities which surround horror films, an example being where common in horror films is the main protagonist curiosity leads them into danger when they should of ran. The tag line on this poster welcome to your new nightmare is more of a very brief description of the film and therefore contrasts with other movie posters in the since they dont use this space to show the viewer of the poster other peoples praise of the film to encourage people to watch this film, the tag line itself suggests this is a film to scare people this is stated in the tag line nightmare the colour of the font is a dark grey talking of dreams and using dark colours emphasizes these will be dark dreams which fits with the plot of the film.

Cognitiveâ€behavioural Syndromes of Neglect and Anosognosia

Cognitive–behavioural Syndromes of Neglect and Anosognosia Considering the neuropsychological diseases discussed during the course, critically compare and discuss theoretical interpretations of at least two syndromes Consciousness is one of the most interesting phenomena of the human mind. Consciousness refers to the integration of the cognitive experiences about self and the external environment (Orfei et al., 2007). However, when this psychological function is damaged, it may lead to dysfunctions in the attention and awareness of personal identity. The focus of the following essay is to provide insight into why the cognitive–behavioural syndromes of neglect and anosognosia for hemiplegia that occur following right hemisphere stroke develop, and to evaluate to what extent this is true, taking into consideration their theoretical interpretations. Anosognosia has been defined by Babinsky (1914) as an impairment leading to unawareness of neurological and cognitive deficits following a brain injury. Individuals who suffer from anosognosia present with motor impairments which lead to gait and self-care deficits and are unaware of their impairments in functioning (Kortte Hillis, 2010). The syndrome of anosognosia often co-occurs with visuo-spacial neglect (Prigatano et al., 2011). Heilman, Watson and Valenstein (1994) defined neglect as a deterioration in attention towards or in response to a stimuli, which is not attributable to a motor or sensory impairment. Neglect is presented as a spectrum, with a variety of forms based on the regions of the lesion, the mode of outputs, reference frame and the sensory modality (Hillis Caramazza, 1995). Alongside their co-occurrence, anosognosia and neglect also overlap in terms of lesion sites, to be more specific, the right temporo-parietal junction, the superior and middle temporal gyri and the right insula (Beschin, Cocchini, Allen Della Sala, 2012). The lesion in the right temporo-parietal junction is extremely important in mechanisms of selective attention. More recent neuroimaging studies have recommended that parts of the parietal and temporal cortex are creating a supramodal structure that interposes goal-directed attention in multiple sensory modalities (Chambers, Stokes Mattingley, 2004). Furthermore, neuroimaging studies show that the insula is very important in self-awareness and in one’s convictions about the functioning of their body parts (Karnath, Baier Nagele, 2005). Taking these in consideration, a lesion in these areas will lead to a dysfunction in directing attention towards a specific stimulus and about their beliefs of body parts functioning, therefore affecting the motor system. The two theoretical interpretations that provide a link between anosognosia and neglect, taking in consideration the dysfunctions presented earlier, are the attentional interpretation model for neglect and the feed-forward model for anosognosia. The attentional interpretation model is a model proposed by Heilman et al. (1993) which states that each hemisphere is provided with its own attentional neurological system, with the attentional system in the right hemisphere directing attention towards both sides of the visual field, whereas the attentional system in the left hemisphere directing attention only towards the right visual field. Therefore, if there is a damage to the left hemisphere, there won’t be a severe right neglect, whereas if there is a lesion to the right hemisphere, the patient will be unable to direct his/hers attention to the left visual field (Bisiach et al., 1998). Corbetta et al. (1993) conducted a PET study on 24 healthy volunteers in order to identify what are the neural systems involved in changing spatial attention towards a visual stimulus in the right or left visual field. Results showed that the right parietal cortex was activated when the participant was required to shift their attention in each visual field, whereas the left parietal lobe was active only when the participants had to change their attention to the right visual field. These finding suggest that the parietal and frontal regions control different aspects of special selection and also support the model proposed by Heilman et al. (1993). However, the attentional interpretation model cannot account for the dysfunctions in the motor system on its own. Therefore, we have to also take in consideration the attentional-arousal hypothesis and the directional hypokenisia. The attentional-arousal hypothesis suggests that neglect is predominantly a form of inattention emerging from the failure of triggering arousal that is needed to activate the neuronal systems necessary for spatial attention (Heilman Valenstien, 1972; Watson et al., 1973, 1974). Furthermore, the attentional hypothesis appears to be in close connection with the motor intention, since when one is directing his/hers attention towards a specific location, one is also ready to perform an action in that direction (Heilman Valenstien, 2003). Directional hypokenisia suggests that patients who suffer from neglect are reluctant in initiating movements towards the contralesional side. Moreover, even when patients are directing attention towards the neglected side and have imposed on them a strategy, their performance not only remained abnormal, but it doesn’t improve (Heilman Valenstien, 1979). In a study conducted by Heilman and Valenties (1979), six patients with neglect were asked to identify a letter that was presented either to the left or right at the end of a line, before bisecting it. The task included lines that were placed at either the left of the body midline, the right, or the centre. Results showed that participants performed significantly better when the line was placed to the right side of the body rather than the left side. These results suggest that the neglect syndrome is a defect in the orienting response. Heilman and Valenstien (1979) suggested that this response appears in anticipation of an action, using the increased arousal to lower the sensory threshold. Therefore, lesions inducing neglect are affecting the arousal (as previously mentioned via the attentional-arousal hypothesis), leading to the inability of the hemisphere to prepare for the action. Based on the same dysfunction of the computational model of motor control is the feed-forward model for anosognosia. More recent theories established on the recent computational models of motor control proposed by Frith et al. (2000), suggest that anosognosia results from an abnormality in motor planning. This theory suggests that, under normal circumstances, in order to develop the intention to move, â€Å"forward models† are being used in order to generate accurate indicators about the approaching sensory feedback. However, if an intended movement is not executed as planned, than a comparator will detect a discrepancy between what it was predicted and the absence of sensory feedback. Therefore, this error can be used to inform the motor system of a malfunction. Furthermore, Heilman and colleagues (1998) proposed that anosognosia is a ‘motor intentional deficit’ which appears from a failure to form motor intentions. Therefore, if the development of an intention t o move is deficient, then the comparator doesn’t receive any instructions about the outline of the movement and the patient considers that the movement has been executed, although no movement has taken place (Gold et. al, 1994). Fotopoulou et al. (2008) conducted a study in which they investigated the role of motor intention in anosognosic patients compared to non-anosognosic patients by detecting whether the anosognosic patients were able to identify the presence or absence of movement focusing only in the visual evidence. False visual feedback of movement in the left paralysed arm was used on four hemiplegic with and four without anosognosic patients. This false visual feedback was delivered using a prosthetic rubber hand. Results showed that patients with anosognosia were more likely than patients without anosognosia to ignore the visual feedback and believe that they moved they hand if there was an intention to move the hand (in the self-generated condition) than when the experimenter moved the rubber hand or when there was no movement. These results support that anosognosia reflects a dominance of motor intention prior to action over the sensory information received after the movement was made (Fotopoul ou et al., 2008). Although the studies presented above do provide a lot of insight in the computational model of awareness and provide an explanation of why these disorders have symptoms such as dysfunctions in directing attention towards a specific stimulus and also about their beliefs of body parts functioning, there are a few limitations to whether these theoretical interpretations can account by their one for the two syndromes. Firstly, although they may co-occur, anosognosia and neglect have also been observed separately. Cocchini, et al. (2009) investigated whether anosognosic patients present with unawareness in a group of 42 left hemisphere damaged patients, using a structured interview and the Visual-Analogue Test for Anosognosia for Motor Impairment (Della Sala, Cocchini, Beschin Cameron, in press). Their results showed that eight anosognosic patients and another twelve patients who were aware of their motor impairments didn’t showed signs of neglect. These results confirm that anosognosia couldn’t be thought of always co-occurring with neglect. Secondly, these results also suggest that there is a double dissociation between anosognosia and neglect (Bisiach et al., 1986). Dauriac-Le Masson et al. (2002) investigated this double dissociation by looking at two patients with a subacute right hemisphere stroke. Their investigation revealed that one of the patients suffered from a severe left hemiplegia which was associated with unilateral neglect and he showed signs of being aware of his motor impairment, whereas the second patient showed a severe anosognosia for hemiplegia, therefore with unawareness towards his motor impairment. These results suggest that although these two syndromes co-occur, they may rely on independent mechanisms because of their double dissociation. And lastly, both anosognosia and neglect are multifaceted processes (Marcel et al., 2004) and only the dysfunction in the computational model of motor control cannot account for all the symptoms of these two syndromes. To be more specific, even when patients who suffer from neglect and anosognosia are aware of their deficits, they still deny them. House and Hodges (1988) detail the case of an 89-year-old woman who suffered left-side paralysis after a right-hemisphere stroke. Although the experimenters demonstrated that her left arm was completely paralysed and her leg nearly paralysed, she failed to understand the severity of her condition and believed that she could still look after herself and walk, although she was in a wheelchair. Furthermore, Marcel et al. (2004) also described the case of several patients who although they were aware of their paralysed limbs, they still overestimated their abilities and believed they can perform bi-manual activities such as clapping their hands or tying a knot. These patients provide examples of another theory of anosognosia, the motivational theory which the patient denies his/hers deficit in order to maintain unharmed his/hers psychological balance (Weinstein Kahn, 1955; Weinstein, 1991). In conclusion, the focus of the essay was to provide insight into why the cognitive–behavioural syndromes of neglect and anosognosia for hemiplegia occur, and to evaluate to what extent this was true, by paying attention to their theoretical interpretations. As stated before, due to the lesions to the tempo-parietal region, the gyrus and insula there are dysfunctions in attention and beliefs about body parts functionality. The attentional intention model for neglect (together with the attentional-arousal hypothesis and the directional hypokenisia) and the feed-forward model for anosognosia provide a satisfactory explanation for these deficits by suggesting that there is a dysfunction in the motor system. For the neglect patients the lesions affect the arousal which leads to the inability to prepare them for action. For the anosognosic patients the lesions lead to a failure to form motor intentions, to be more specific if the intention to move is impaired , then the comparator doesn’t receive instructions about the planned action and the patient considers that the movement has been executed, even if that didn’t happen. However, these theoretical interpretations of dysfunctions in motor control cannot account on their own for all the symptoms of neglect and anosognosia. Previous literature suggests that although the incidence of co-occurrence is high, there are cases where anosognosia and neglect appear independently and present double dissociations. Furthermore, as proposed by Marcel et al. (2004) both syndromes are multifaceted syndromes and it can’t be possible that only one theoretical interpretation can account for these. In conclusion, both anosognosia and neglect are very interesting phenomena which have captured the attention of many researches, however fundamental issues of theoretical interpretations have not still been answered. References: Babinski J. (1914) Contribution a` l’e ´tude de troubles mentaux dans l’he ´miplegie organique ce ´re ´brale. Revue Neurologique 27, 845–847. Beschin, N., Cocchini, G., Allen, R., Della Sala, S. (2012). Dissociation between anosognosia and neglect demonstrated by mean of a treatment response bias. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 22(4), 550-562. Bisiach,E.,Vallar,G.,Perani,D.,Papagno,C.,Berti,A (1986).Unawareness of disease following lesions of the right hemisphere: anosognosia for hemiplegia and anosognosia for hemianopia.Neuropsychologia, 24, 471-482. Bisiach, E., Ricci, R., Modona, M.N. (1998). Visual Awareness and Anisometry of Space Representation in Unilateral Neglect: A Panoramic Investigation by Means of a Line Extension Task. Consciousness and Cognition, 7(3), 327-355. Chambers, C.D., Stokes, M.G., Mattingley, J.B. (2004). Modality specific control of strategic spatial attention in parietal cortex. Neuron, 44(6), 925-930. Cocchini, G., Beschin, N., Cameron, A., Fotopoulou A. Della Sala, S. (2009). Anosognosia for motor impairment following left-brain damage. Neuropsychology, 23, 223-230. Corbetta, M., Miezin, F.M., Shulman, G.L., Petersen, S.E. (1993). A PET study of visuospatial attention. Journal of Neuroscience, 12, 1202–1226. Dauriac- Le Masson, V., Mailhan, L., Louis- Dreyfus, A., De Montety, G., Denys, P., Bussel, B., Azouvi, P. (2002). Double dissociation between unilateral neglect and anosognosia. Revue neurologique, 158(4), 427-430. Della Sala S., Cocchini G., Beschin N., Cameron A. (in press).VATAm: Visual-analogue test for anosognosia for motor impairment: A new test to assess awareness for motor impairment. The Clinical Neuropsychologist Fotopoulou, A., Tsakiris, M., Haggard, P., Vagopoulou, A., Rudd, A., Kopelman, M. (2008). The role of motor intention in motor awareness: An experimental study on anosognosia for hemiplegia. Brain, 131, 3432-3442. Frith,C.D.,Blakemore,S.J.,Wolpert,D.M. (2000).Abnormalities in the awareness and control of action.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 355, 1771-8. Gold,M.,Adair,J.C.,Daniel,H.J.,Heilman,K.M. (1994).Anosognosia for hemiplegia: an electrophysiologic investigation of the feed-forward hypothesis,Neurology, 44, 1804. Heilman, K. M. and Valenstien, E. (1972) Frontal lobe neglect in man. Neurology, 22, 660-664. Heilman, K.M, Valenstein E. (1979) Mechanisms underlying hemispatial neglect. Annals of Neurology 5, 166- 170. Heilman, K.M., Watson, R.T., Valenstein, E. (1993).Neglect and related disorders. In Heilman, K.M. and Valenstein, E. (Eds.), Clinical Neuropsychology. New York: Oxford University Press, Ch. 10, 279-336. Heilman, K.M, Watson, R., Valenstein E. (1994). Localization of lesions in neglect and related disorders. In: Kertez, A.,editor, Localization and Neuroimaging in Neuropsychology. San Diego: Academic Peers, 495-524. Heilman,K.M.,Barret,A.M.,Adair,J.C. (1998). Possible mechanisms of anosognosia: a defect in self awareness.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 355, 1903-1909. Heilman K.M, Valenstein, E. (2003) Clinical Neuropsychology, Fourth Edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK Hillis, A., Caramazza, A.(1995). A framework for interpreting distinct pattern of hemispatial neglect. Neurocase, 1, 189-207. House, A. and Hodges, J. (1988). Persistent denial of handicap after infarction of the right basal ganglia: A case study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 51, 112-115. Karnath, H.O., Baier, B., Nagele, T. (2005), Awareness of the functioning of one’s own limbs mediated by the insular cortex?. Journal of neuroscience, 25(31), 7134-7138. Kortte, K., Hillis A.E.( 2010). Recent Advances in the Understanding of Neglect and Anosognosia Following Right Hemisphere Stroke. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 9(6), 459–465. Marcel,A.J.,Tegner,R.,Nimmo-Smith,I. (2004). Anosognosia for plegia: specificity, extension, partiality and disunity of bodily awareness.Cortex, 40, 19-40. Orfei, M.D., Robinson, R.G., Prigatano, G.P., Starkstein, S., Rusch, N., Bria, P., Caltagirone, C., Spalletta, G. (2007). Anosognosia for hemiplegia after stroke is a multifaceted phenomenon: a systematic review of the literature. Brain, 130, 3075-3090. Prigatano, G.P., Matthes, J., Hill, S., Wolf, T.R. Heiserman, J.E. (2011). Anosognosia for hemiplegia with preserved awareness of complete cortical blindness following intracranial haemorrhage. Cortex, 47(10), 1219-1227. Watson, R.T., Heilman,K.M., Cauthen, J.C., King, F.A (1973). Neglect after cingulectomy. Neurology, 23(9), 1003-1007. Watson, R. T., Heilman, K. M., Millar, B. D. and King, F. A. (1974). Neglect after mesencephalic reticular formation lesions. Neurology, 24, 294-298. Weinstein, E.A. and Kahn, R.L. (1955). Denial of illness: Symbolic and physiological aspects, Springfield, IL: Thomas. Weinstein E. A. (1991).Anosognosia and denial of illness. In Prigatano G. P. Schacter D. L. (Eds.), Awareness of deficit after brain injury, 240–257.

lisence to kill :: essays research papers

License to Kill Imagine being in a bar with a few of your good friends. Everyone is drinking and having a good time. You are going to leave and go home, but you friends won't let you because they know the dangers of driving after having a few drinks. Instead they call a cab to give you a ride home. You would be extremely lucky to have such smart friends. Drunk driving is a very serious problem in our society today, but it is becoming socially unacceptable causing the numbers of alcohol related traffic fatalities t o decline considerably. Drunk driving can be very deadly. Yet many people drive while under the influence everyday. Drivers who are drunk are blamed for the loss of as many as twenty-five thousand lives in highway crashes each year and hundreds of thousands of severe injuries. It is thought that drunk drivers have a long history of doing this and many prior arrests. In addition, most of those killed are just innocent victims whose behavior did not contribute to their deaths. These last two statements are both false. On aver age a drunk driver that kills has never been involved in an alcohol related accident before and have no prior convictions for drunk driving. The part about the people killed are just innocent bystanders is unexaggerated also. Most of the drunk drivers victims are the drivers themselves, their often passengers, and the drunken pedestrians and cyclists. Despite this drunk driving is still very dangerous. It is the leading cause of unintentional injury deaths in America today. In fact it is said that about 40 % of the population will be involved in a alcohol related crash during their life. Drunk driving is especially dangerous to young people, who seem to be more involved than others. Drunk driving is the number one cause of death among y oung people, accounting for 20% of all deaths from ages 15 to 20. Drunk driving is such a hard thing to overcome though. In our society alcohol is overwhelmingly accepted as a facilitator of sociable interaction, and the great majority of adults drink. But steps a re being taken and the numbers of deaths are declining. Alcohol-related traffic fatalities have been decreasing lately. As a proportion of all traffic fatalities it has been decreased since 1999. In fact since 1999 the number of alcohol related traffic fatalities has decreased 30%, from 25,165 to 17,699, while alcohol-related traffic fatalities, as a proportion of all traffic fatalities, decreased from 57% to 45%.

Cuban Economics Essay -- Essays Papers

Introduction Modern Cuba is a country born of struggle. The revolutionary movement that formed the modern day government has remained in power for more than forty years. Indeed, the Cuban government is perhaps one of the most stable governments in the region. This fact is made even more evident by the recent fall of democracy in Haiti. However, the past ten years has seen a marked change in Cuban economic policy. Ostracized from the international community and faced with an embargo imposed by the United States, Cuba has turned to various sources of economic reform in order to survive in a global market. Background (1959 – 1991) During the early period after the revolution, Cuba’s primary economic base was based upon one agricultural resource: sugar (Packenham, pg. 137). Without a diversified agricultural or industrial base, Cuba was forced to become dependent on the only superpower that shared its political ideology, the Soviet Union. Indeed, Cuban trade with the Soviet Union reached a level of 69 percent in 1978, a level equivalent to the amount of trade conducted with the United States prior to the revolution (Packenham, pg. 139). As Cuba entered the 1980’s, it was plagued with the same problems that had plagued it since its inception: dependence on one agricultural produce and on one major trading partner. In the estimate of Carmelo Mesa-Lago, most of the Cuban growth from 1960-1984 came as a result of the $40 billion in Soviet aid (â€Å"Cuban Economy†, pg. 187). Leading up to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Cuban economy was in a terrible condition. In 1986, the economic growth in planned prices was only 1.4 percent compared to a planned rate of 3 percent. Labor productivity fell 1.6 per... ...orida Press (1994). Packenham, Robert A., â€Å"Cuba and the USSR since 1959: What Kind of Dependency†, pgs. 135-165 in Louis Horowitz ed., Cuban Communism (7th ed.), Transaction Publishers (1989). Perez-Lopez, Jorge F., Cuba’s Second Economy: From Behind the Scenes to Center Stage, Transaction Publishers (1995). Theriot, Lawrence H., â€Å"Cuba Faces the Economic Realities of the 1980’s†, pgs. 257-276 in Louis Horowitz ed., Cuban Communism (7th ed.), Transaction Publishers (1989). Watson, Hilbourne A., â€Å"The Techno-Paradigm Shift, Globalization, and Western Hemisphere Integration Trends and Tendencies: Mapping Issues in the Economic and Social Evolution of the Caribbean†, pgs. 59-88 in Joseph S. Tulchin, Andres Serbin, and Rafael Hernandez eds., Cuba and the Caribbean: Regional Issues and Trends in the Post-Cold War Era, Scholarly Resources (1997).

Correcting Bodily Imperfections: O.T. vs. Optometry :: essays research papers fc

Ever since I arrived at this school freshman year, I have been encouraged by my parents to become an occupational therapist (OT). I am discontent with the descriptions of this career, but I may pursue that career for my parents despite my displeasure. Besides becoming an occupational therapist, I am also considering the profession of an optometrist since I am interested in helping people acquire perfect eyesight. Although the two careers optometry and occupational therapy are similar because of their relation to the field of science, optometry seems as if it is a more suitable career choice to fit my character.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Occupational therapists work in workout rooms in an environment that is well lighted and equipped with materials such as machines to help their patients (Occupational 277). These machines generate much noise in large rehabilitation centers. Therapists work in spacious rooms and are usually on their feet. At certain times, a therapist may confront emergencies where a patient is severely ill. Optometrists also work in well- lighted offices. The offices are furnished to their liking and have equipment used to examine eyes. These machines do not emit any noises, unlike those of occupational therapists. Optometrists work in quiet surroundings and are seldom faces with emergencies (Cosgrove 808). Occupational therapists have a very challenging job description. They must be able to help patients who are disabled. Occupational Therapists work to help individuals who do not function correctly such as people with permanent disabilities, the inability to function in a work environment, and even the mentally ill (Farr 385). Optometrists also help patients who have imperfections with their bodies; but unlike occupational therapists, optometrists work to correct vision problems by prescribing eyeglasses and contact lenses. They diagnose eye diseases and perform tests to determine the best method to correct vision problems. An optometrist also performs certain surgical procedures and will even counsel patients about their vision (Occupational 278).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The educational background needed for both careers include therapy and counseling and biology (Occupational 277). Other courses needed to become an occupational therapist are administration and management, clerical, economics and accounting, customer and personal service, personnel and human resources, and psychology. Occupational therapists must have at least a bachelor’s degree in occupational therapy (Occupational 279). Optometrists also need to have completed chemistry, medicine, and dentistry, education and training, and foreign languages. A completed three years of preoptometric study at an accredited college or university is required to receive a Doctor of Optometry degree (Cosgrove 807).

Kraft and Cadbury Merger Essay

What is the role of the government in this merger? What is the impact on the shareholders, what are their thoughts about it and is it a successful merger or not. Other than Kraft and Cadbury four aspects of doing business internationally has been discussed and their influence in an international business career. 1. 1 How and why Kraft identified Cadbury as a potential partner? On 19th January 2010 Kraft the American Giant, acquired Cadbury the most popular and one of the most selling brand in chocolates for $11. 5bn. The reason for Kraft to identify Cadbury as its potential partner and even after Cadbury rejected its first bid on 7th September 2009, and then came up with a higher bid, was that Kraft wanted to bring in the most loved British Chocolates to USA, because the chocolates that America produces are only loved by American’s and are not so loved around the world, while they targeted the British company because they make better chocolates plus they wanted to get into the British market and to get into the British market remaining into the food industry they could not identify a better option than acquiring Cadbury by merging these two companies one they capture the British market of dairy food plus they introduce their products into Britain and the Cadbury products into USA having the plus points of both cultures. Expected benefits Kraft is the second largest Food beverage company in the world, which produced revenue of 49. billion USD in the year 2010 (Kraftfoodscompany, (2011) and is operating in more than 150 counties worldwide and has an Employee number of around 100,000. Where as Cadbury on the other hand is the second largest Confectionary Company in the world, which produced revenue of 5. 38 billion USD in the year 2008 (Cadbury annual report, 2008) and has a very strong hold in Asia Pacific and Latin America and has an Employee number of around 70,000. When these two giants combine, one American Giant and other British Giant, they both can conquer the food industry if they both are managed well. In 2010 Kraft already made revenue increase of 0. 7 billion USD from 2008 to 2010 after the take over of Cadbury (CNN, 2011). Kraft and Cadbury can both work very well and can avail a lot of benefits from each other provided that both them work together, because Kraft has its own management too large in scale and Cadbury as well. 1. 3 Synergies for both companies involved? After the merger of Kraft and Cadbury, both companies are expected to have revenue synergies and have an increase of the net revenue of up to 5% or more. They are targeting the long-term output for it. Which as a result will increase the net revenue. The combined company (Kraft and Cadbury) is targeting to increase their per share cost in 2011 of approximately $0. 05 and on the basis of cash. These two companies combined can make a lot of revenue. Parliament publication, 2012) Other than that Cadbury has other channels of gaining revenue like gas filling stations, corner shops which are well being forced by Cadbury and on the other hand Kraft has a strong hold on supermarkets and groceries. As they are merged now the overall distribution will be higher for Kraft and Cadbury and their revenue will increase. Both of the companies has opposite markets that they have captured for Cadbury they have a large influence in Asia, Africa, Mexico and Turkey and for Kraft they have more influence in Brazil and China. By combining together they both can capture almost every market around the globe. The total value of the British chocolate confectionery sector amounts to approximately EUR 3. 9 billion. In the UK, the parties’ activities overlap only in the markets of tablets and pralines. Kraft is active in tablets and pralines mainly with its brands Milka, Toblerone and Terry’s chocolate Orange, and Cadbury with its brands Dairy Milk, Roses and Green & Black. (http://ec. europa. eu/competition/mergers/cases/decisions/m5644_20100106_20212_en. pdf page 9 ) (Kraft Foods Official 2011 Report) 1. 4 The risks associated with the choice of acquisition as an approach to this particular ‘partnership’ The first and last risk which is associated with this particular partnership is of keeping their word. The official position of the Fairtrade Foundation is the following: â€Å"The Fairtrade Foundation is very proud of our relationship with Cadbury, and what we have achieved together, including the conversion of Cadbury Dairy Milk to Fairtrade in the UK and Ireland in 2009, now being extended to three other international markets – Canada, Australia and New Zealand. This has had a tremendously positive public response, and is delivering major benefits to cocoa farmers in Ghana, quadrupling the amount they are able to sell on Fairtrade terms in 2010, compared to 2008. The Fairtrade Foundation and Cadbury have a shared vision for the future, and there are contractual commitments in place, which will form part of any intellectual property transfer between Cadbury and Kraft in any takeover. We believe that the progress we have made together in strengthening cocoa farmers to deliver long term sustainability of the cocoa supply chain, along with a fast growing level of consumer demand for Fairtrade products, not just in the UK but globally, present a unique and compelling case for continuing to pursue the Cadbury commitment to their Cocoa Partnership and to Fairtrade, and taking it even further in coming months and years. † Treehugger, 2012) According to the Official Statement, they will perform Fairtrade for both the companies and Kraft confirmed that it would uphold Cadbury’s commitments to Fairtrade which were that: †¢ Dairy Milk will continue to be Fairtrade in the UK and Northern Ireland and in three more markets, Canada, Australia and New Zealand by early 2010; †¢ Green & Black’s (which is owned by Cadbury) will move its entire range to Fairtrade by the end of 2011. (http://www. publications. parliament. uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmbis/234/234. df ) But no one is quiet happy with the outcome of the merger. Because Kraft did not really act upon what they stated to do before the merger, expression of the former first Minister of Scotland Jack McConnell asked Kraft in the Scottish Parliament to Honour the Fairtrade Part of the deal, he said â€Å"There have been concerns expressed for many years that Kraft has never shown any enthusiasm for fair trade and therefore this must be under threat as a result of the takeover. † (Treehugger, 2012). Warren Buffett isn’t too keen now either. Discussing the CEO of Kraft, he said â€Å"She thinks this is a good deal, I think it’s a bad deal. † Mind you, he is probably not worrying about the fairtrade aspect. Cadbury’s 6,000 UK workers are also worried, because it is a hi risk for the workers to now work at Cadbury under the American Management which has already influenced the Cadbury management. 1. 5 Feasible alternative? The most feasible alternative to Kraft for Cadbury was Hershey Chocolates, which is also an American Chocolate brand. In 2009 before the hostile takeover of Cadbury by Kraft, Cadbury talked to Hershey personal to include themselves in the bid so they can recommend Hershey over Kraft to its shareholders and are taken over by Hershey, but unfortunately Hershey did not want to be the part of the bidding war over Cadbury with Kraft because Hershey is its self weighing up. Even for Kraft Hershey was a good alternative over Cadbury because both are American Companies and would understand eachother easily rather than taking over a company is a completely different region, Ferrero maker of Rocher chocolate and Nutella is also a very good alternative for Cadbury but at the time of bid according to Trevor Datson the spokesperson for Cadbury said the company had no comment. No one at Ferrero was immediately available for comment. Involvement of National and corporate cultures Neither is the Nation nor the Corporate section is happy with the merger of the both companies, because for public there is a fear of cutting off more than 6000 jobs is Britian and more than 46,000 globally so people working at Cadbury are really afraid to work at it and other than employees the Corporate personal are also in fear of that the world leading brands like Dairy Milk, Flake and Wipsa are at risk with this merger and the shareholder are also not very happy with the $11. 5 bn deal. Critical Evaluation of both the companies about this Partnership Both of the companies had their own management and their own way of doing business around the world. As Kraft is majorly dairy products maker and is being loved by that around the world. Where as Cadbury is also a very well known name in the chocolate industry, because a lot of people in United Kingdom and at other major parts of the world such as Asia and Africa Cadbury is really loved for chocolate. As through the analysis this is a very hostile takeover i. e. , between Kraft and Cadbury, after taking over Cadbury Kraft accepted some of the points that they will do and keep is at it is and after that takeover they did not manage to fulfill those commitments which lead to misunderstanding between these two companies after their merger. As Kraft agreed that they will stick to Faretrade organization and to keep the same cocoa supplier as Cadbury had before and before the merger Cadbury was to close one of their plants but after merger Kraft did not do so and now they are facing these problems which are not very good in the long run for both of the companies. Involvement Of the Government In this hostile takeover not just the employees and shareholders but also the government, had and also has issues with this mergers. With the merger of Kraft Foods and Cadbury a number of important issues have bin highlighted in the way through which the foreign takeovers of UK companies are conducted.